The Dual Nature of Thinking
Theory is the uber-story - it combines storytelling with rigorous analytical thinking to help us better understand the world around us. In his book Thinking, Fast and Slow, Daniel
Kahneman explores our two ways of thinking: System 1 is fast and intuitive, System 2 is slow, deliberative, and logical. Both have their place, as some situations demand snap judgments, while others benefit from careful evaluation. Theory is very much in System 2's domain - it is about developing overarching narratives and subjecting them to rigorous testing to ascertain their validity. Narratives that don't hold up to close scrutiny get swiftly discarded, while those that do get refined as new insights emerge. (1)
Don't Mess with Crows
Let's start with logic and reasoning. As we have seen, causal reasoning is not unique to humans. Mammals and birds do use causal information as cues for survival. Lab experiments have shown that rats can learn and generalize cues to obtain food rewards. Many experiments were conducted with crows, seeking to reproduce problems they would encounter in their natural environment. The experiments showed that crows have an uncanny ability to solve problems, understand cause and effect, including hidden causes, in a way that was once thought to be uniquely human. (2) New Caledonian Crows were observed shaping tools and using hooks - something that only appeared in the human record well after the stone age. (3)
Remarkably, crows are able to recognize human faces, and can hold grudges for a very long time, even passing on the grudges to their offspring. Alfred Hitchcock was ahead of his time in casting crows in the horror-thriller movie The Birds!
Theory, Powered by Language
Language enabled humans to take reasoning and analysis to a whole new level, with more abstract and deliberative thinking, culminating in the development of theories. Think of theory as the top rung in human cognitive abilities; it is an overarching or "uber-story" that aims to make sense of the world and explain a wide range of facts and observations.
Theories, much like stories, have the power to captivate and inspire. They instill a sense of wonder and awe by unveiling the underlying mechanisms and processes that shape the world around us. Just as a story has characters, a plot, and a sequence of events, a theory has key entities, principles, and mechanisms driving the phenomena it seeks to explain. A compelling theory, much like a captivating story, can transport us to different realms and perspectives, transforming our understanding of reality and challenging our established beliefs.
For instance, take the theory of evolution by natural selection. It's the epic saga of life's journey on Earth, featuring a cast of diverse creatures, a treasure trove of fossils, a series of cataclysms, and a species' struggle for survival. It tells the story of life's humble beginnings and its adventurous trek towards complexity, with plot twists involving variation, inheritance, and survival of the fittest. When Darwin's theory first emerged, it seemed like a tall tale, but accumulated evidence drove its wide acceptance and profoundly altered our perspective on humanity's role in the world. Metaphysics, which is about seeking answers to the most fundamental questions such as "Who are we?", "What is life's purpose?", and "What does it all mean?", is ultimately about striving for an all-encompassing theory of everything.
The development of language-based reasoning in humans likely unfolded over tens of thousands of years. Language allowed for the representation of concepts through symbols and the gradual creation of theoretical frameworks for abstraction and generalization. Over time, language enabled the practice of inductive reasoning (developing and articulating theories) and deductive reasoning (testing existing theories), as well as the sharing and refining of these processes. In the social realm, language-based reasoning enabled more complex social interactions and a better understanding of the actions and intentions of others (it is no accident that psychologists refer to such capability as the "theory of mind").
Theory: The Catalyst of Innovation
Theories, much like stories, are not static; they evolve and adapt as new evidence surfaces or flaws or limitations are exposed. They undergo revisions, refinements, and even paradigm shifts, similar to how stories can be retold, reinterpreted, or reimagined over time.
Theories play a critical role in supporting innovation and overcoming resistance to change. Throughout history, individuals have repeatedly advanced forward-looking theories and beliefs that challenged the accepted wisdom and established knowledge of their time. Through a process of conjecture, hypothesis, and experimentation, they uncovered new insights and created new possibilities that were considered highly improbable if not impossible at the time (such as the earth not being flat, or humans being able to fly). (4)
Interestingly, our current AI tools based on Large Language Models (LLMs), impressive as they are, are still in the early chapters when it comes to theory-based thinking. (5) The fact that LLM tools can outperform humans on standardized tests such as SATs points to the severe limitations of those tests in assessing a person's cognitive and communication abilities - but I am getting ahead of my skis; we will revisit these topics further on!
In summary, theories are the uber stories, the grand narratives that unify our understanding of the world and provide a framework for interpreting and exploring the mysteries that surround us. Theory-based thinking was and is essential to tangible progress - to filter out narratives that don't survive close scrutiny, refine those that do, and learn new insights we can act upon to create new possibilities.
That's what I think. What do you think? (7)
What about conspiracy "theories"?
Next: Let's conclude on what makes Sapiens unique: What is it about Sapiens?
(1) Much of the inspiration for this article comes from "The Infinite Staircase - What the Universe Tells Us About Life, Ethics, and Mortality" by Geoffrey Moore.
(3) Manufacture and use of hook-tools by New Caledonian crows | Nature and Unique beak evolved with tool use in New Caledonian crow | (e) Science News (esciencenews.com)
(4) “Heavier-than-air flying machines are impossible.” -- Lord Kevin, President of the British Royal Society, and eminent scientist with expertise in thermo- and hydrodynamics.
(6) See Conspiracy theories as part of history: The role of societal crisis situations - PMC (nih.gov)
(7) Credit to Geoffrey A Moore who typically inserts this line at the end of his articles!